Malansang Isda by Rosalinda Olsen Essay Example for Free

Malansang Isda by Rosalinda Olsen Essay †Ang hindi nagmamahal sa sariling wika ay masahol pa sa malansang isda† is one of the most often quoted of Rizal’s writings. Why, then, did he write his two novels, Noli me tangere and El Filibusterismo in Spanish? In his dedication of theNoli me Tangere, Rizal wrote, â€Å"I will strive to reproduce thy condition faithfully, without discriminations. † Surely, the national hero of the Philippines was not somebody who said one thing and did the opposite. Both novels portrayed the social and political conditions of the time through characters that represented a cross section of Philippine society—the natives who were called the Indios, the Peninsuslares or the Spanish who were born in Spain, and the Filipino or the Spanish who were born in the Philippine Islands—immortalized in the characters of Crisostomo Ibarra and his beloved Maria Clara, Elizas, Padre Damaso, Dona Victorina, and the sinister Padre Salvi. These characters represented the ideal and the despicable, the funny and the tragic, the truly comic and the merely ridiculous. There was enough in the novel to satisfy the Filipinos’ appetite for a good laugh and a love storythe more sentimental, the better—serving as a thin layer to hide the bitter satire. It can be said that Rizal’s two novels awoke the slumbering political passion of his countrymen so successfully that it quickened the birth of the Philippine Revolution. If this were Rizal’s aim, which most decidedly was not, he would have written the novels in Tagalog. Not only would this have been understandable to most people in Luzon, it would have hidden the revolutionary intent from the Spanish. As it was, the novels had to be distributed in secret among the Indios because the Spanish authorities banned those books. Which leads to the question of whom his target audience was in, order to answer the first question of why he wrote the Noli me tangere and theEl Filibusterismo in the language of the Spanish colonizers. So much has been written about Rizal’s extreme reluctance for revolution as the solution to the social cancer that was destroying his country, in contrast to his passionate advocacy of education and political reform. Evidently, the Spanish colonizers were Rizal’s primary target audience, hence, he wrote in their language. The Indio could have been a secondary target audience, perhaps in the hope that the ilustrados would fight for the socio-political reforms that were clearly indicated in the novels. There was no need to reproduce the social conditions of the time to the Indio who knew it only too well and constantly suffered from it. Rizal wrote the novels in Spanish because that was the appropriate language for his intent. Language is basically a tool, a means to express ideas and to communicate these, but before being a tool, language is first a reflection of one’s objective reality. Language is a symbol that represents the material objects in one’s environment. If an object does not exist in one’s material universe, one would have no word for it. For example, a person in search of gold in a certain area might show the natives a gold piece and ask what the natives call that metal and where he could find it. If there is no word for gold among the natives, it either means there is no gold in the area or the natives have not seen or heard of that metal before. When Rizal wrote the famous lines â€Å"Ang hindi nagmamahal sa sariling wika ay masahol pa sa malansang isda†, he was not referring to language merely as a communication tool but as an expression of one’s identity, of one’s individual and social consciousness. In the novels, Dona Victorina represents the type of Filipino who rejects her identity as Indio and who would do everything to deny it in every form, particularly in mannerism and language. More than a hundred years have passed since Rizal wrote his two novels but the social and eco-political structures remain basically the same. Only the ruling class has been changed, Filipinos have replaced the colonial masters. At the tip of an inverted pyramid is the very small minority of the power class that consists of the affluent and the Catholic hierarchy. At the top of this pyramid is about 80% of the population that have been assessed by the World Bank-IMF as living below poverty level. Between these two main groups is the middle class that shows no sign of increasing in number. Only a miracle would keep this unnatural pyramid from toppling over, but that belongs to another article. Undoubtedly, Pilipino (supposedly the expanded and enriched form of Tagalog) is not the language of the power class. Most of them speak English and some prefer to speak Spanish. The masses can read and speak Pilipino, as it is a required subject in school, but chances are, they speak their cradle tongue among themselves and most of the time, which would be any of the major languages and the numerous dialects. The language of the middle class is an odd mix of English, Pilipino, and their radle tongue. Since language is a reflection of one’s identity, could we then say that the Filipinos have one national identity? Without a common identity, there could be no real sense of nationhood. This is what Rizal meant by that famous quotation that is often quoted but only the surface level. Pilipino is the national language but the preferred working language of government, business, and education as well as the mass media remains English. There would be nothing amiss with this if it were not for the great majority of the population whose knowledge of English is not functional. It is not surprising that government can get away shamelessly with graft and corruption because the masses have little understanding of what is going on. Clearly, language in Philippine contemporary society is the one big wall that divides the powerful from the masses of poor people, notwithstanding all the calls for people empowerment. One would think that the entertainment industry, specifically the movies and the television, might be a vehicle for uniting the people because the movies are still affordable and one could always go to the neighbor’s to watch television. Just take a quick look at the commercials; most of them are in English. Noontime and evening variety shows are probably the worst because the language used by the hosts and participants reflects the jargon of the â€Å"lost tribe† aka Manila people, which is a horrible porridge of English and Pilipino with an even more horrendous lack of grammar or logical syntax. So much for the local role models, let’s take a look at the school system. According to a DECS ruling, Pilipino should be the mode of classroom instruction. So far, this has worked, in some fashion, in the elementary grades and to a lesser extent, in the secondary and the tertiary levels. Textbooks in Pilipino have been published and used in the schools, but all the references remain English. In fact, teachers find it impossible to use Pilipino in teaching mathematics, algebra, chemistry, or physics, philosophy, etc. Not surprisingly, the pupil is subjected to a kind of mental lobotomy and eventually their soul is truncated, amputated, or dichotomised. Brave souls who perhaps wanted to â€Å"make a difference â€Å" in the academe, have attempted to write their undergraduate or graduate thesis in Pilipino. Some succeeded, but one can’t help wondering if their theses would ever be taken down from the library shelves to be read and enjoyed. Few would have the courage to admit that they would rather read Rizal’s novels in English, not just because it would be easier for them but because the Pilipino translations are so antiquated that one would read it only under duress, which is to say, only because the school requires it. The Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia got their independence from their colonial masters at about the same time. All three countries created a national language that would be the expression of the national soul and, thus, be a unifying element. Sadly, Pilipino has not succeeded in being the language of the government and the governed, in contrast to how Indonesia and Malaysia has used their respective national languages. Indonesia does not use Dutch as the language of government, education and commerce. Neither do the Malaysians use English as their working language. An anecdote would illustrate this. A friend was on holiday in Kuala Lumpur. One day, she took a cab and, naturally, spoke to the taxi driver in English. In polite but cold tones, the driver asked her, â€Å"Madam, why do you talk in English? We are all Malaysians. † Nonplussed, she said she was Filipino and the taxi driver apologized and explained that she looked Malaysian. It might be an excellent thing for Philippine politicians to have experienced this, but then again, they would be more likely to hire a limousine (at Filipino taxpayer’s expense, of course) and lose the chance of being told to speak the national language by a lowly taxi driver. Is the Filipino then a â€Å"malansang isda†? Using the â€Å"isda† analogy, the Filipino might well be like a fish out of water, in the sense that Filipinos are supposed to be living in one country—the big sea—that has become an alien territory to citizens whose ties have remained regional or tribal rather than national. A fish out of its natural habitat would quickly die and stink. Rizal did not have all the answers to Philippine problems, but he has practically said it all. For the young, he collected folk stories and legends. For the more mature, he wrote the novels, Noli me tangereand El Filibusterismo, the two long essays â€Å"The Indolence of the Filipino† and â€Å"The Philippines a Century Hence† as well as poetry and countless articles. Jose Rizal is the national hero and his portrait is in the lowest denomination of Philippine paper money. Every Filipino knows Rizal, but do they understand him? Those who have read his novels remember only the love story of Ibarra and Maria Clara, the antics of Dona Victorina, and the pathetic Sisa. High School and college graduates are obliged to take the Rizal course as a requirement for graduation, but how many of them understand the two long essays relative to what is happening in the Philippines today, if they read it at all? Rizal has been iconized and even idolized by a sect that calls themselves â€Å"Rizalistas†, but the Filipino has yet to realize and actualise his relevance.

Effective methods of understanding and treating PTSD

Effective methods of understanding and treating PTSD The treatment related publications of the last twenty years places a large amount of attention on determining the most useful psychological therapy for clients with a diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder, PTSD. The overall aim of this paper is to critically evaluate current cognitive models of PTSD and literature on the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapies to treat this disorder based on these models. Definitions of PTSD The 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM-IV (APA, 1994) defines trauma as: (a) The individual experienced, witnessed or was confronted with an event that involved actual or perceived threat to life or physical integrity; and (b) the individuals emotional response to this event included horror, helplessness or intense fear, Foa and Meadows (1997, p. 450). The psychological symptoms connected with PTSD are categorised into three groups of symptoms in DSM-IV: The main characteristics include re-experiencing (in the form of flashbacks, intrusive thoughts, and distressing dreams), avoidance/numbing and heightened arousal, after the person is subjected to a traumatic incident. (Foa Rothbaurn, 1992). The next group includes avoidance of stimuli trauma-reminding stimuli and symptoms of emotional numbing (Foa, Hearst-Ikeda, Perry, 1995; Litz, 1993). The final symptom group includes heightened arousal e.g. hypervigilance, exaggerated startle response, difficulty sleeping and irritability (APA, 1994). Current Government Guidelines on the treatment of PTSD Determining effective and efficient treatments for PTSD has come to be seen as important due to the conditions prevalence and the many techniques and interventions available. The National Institute for Clinical Excellence, NICE, reviewed the most robust outcome research and produced guidelines, to provide information and direction for the psychological management of PTSD in adult sufferers (NICE, 2005). The guidelines were developed from an independent, methodical, rigorous and multistage procedure of selecting, examining and assessing evidence for the successful treatment of PTSD. These guidelines conclude that individuals with PTSD should receive either trauma focused Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (TFCBT) or Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing (EMDR). However, a distinction is made between single incident trauma and more complex presentations, and the guidelines suggest increasing the total number of sessions accordingly. Although the guidelines appear helpful for the tre atment of single incident PTSD, they are arguably not as informative for treatment approaches for a large group of individuals with complex PTSD. This presents difficulties for the clinician and patient in deciding the most effective therapeutic options. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is the most extensively studied therapy for individuals with PTSD (Foa Meadows, 1997) and many studies support its efficacy in reducing symptom severity (e.g. Resick Schnicke, 1992; Foa, Rothbaurn, 1992; Foa et al., 1995; Foa Jaycox, 1996; Riggs, Murdock, 1991; Richards, Lovell, Marks, 1994; Thompson, Charlton, Kerry, Lee, Turner, 1995). However, CBT for PTSD encompasses diverse techniques. These include exposure procedures, cognitive restructuring procedures, and combinations of both these techniques. Exposure Therapy Exposure therapy is derived from the idea that imaginal exposure (IE) to the trauma or feared situation, leads to a decrease in symptoms. The theory argues enduring activation of traumatic memories result in processing of the emotional information, lessening of anxiety and assimilation of accurate memories (Foa et al., 1995). Much research has shown that treatment involving exposure therapy is effective in decreasing PTSD symptoms (e.g. Foa et al., 1999; Frueh, Turner, Beidel, Mirabella, Jones, 1996; Keane, Fairbank, Cadell, Zimmering, 1989). Foa, Rothbaum, Riggs, and Murdoch (1991) investigated exposure therapy, stress inoculation (a type of Anxity Management Treatment, AMT), supportive counselling, and a non-treatment group in the management of rape-related PTSD. Clinical measures of symptoms and standardized psychometric tests were examined before and after treatment as well as at a three month follow-up. The stress inoculation intervention showed superior results to the counselling and non-treatment conditions at post-test. However, at the follow-up, the individuals participating in exposure therapy showed more improvements of PTSD symptoms than individuals in the other groups. Research has investigated the efficiency of exposure therapy compared to different methods of treatment. For instance, exposure therapy and cognitive therapy were investigated by Tarrier et al. (1999) for the management of individuals with PTSD arising from various traumatic incidents. Although both approaches demonstrated a noteworthy decrease in PTSD symptoms that was still present at 6-months follow up there was no non-treatment control against which these two treatments could be evaluated. Similarly, Foa et al. (1999) compared exposure therapy to AMT and then combined the two treatments. These three groups were compared to a non-treatment control group. All three of these treatments successfully decreased symptoms of rape-related PTSD and improved more than the non-treatment control group. However there was no significant variation among the treatment groups on outcome measures. In a study that once again compared exposure therapy to cognitive therapy, Marks, Lovell, Noshirvani, Livanou, and Thrasher (1998) examined these two treatments alone and in combination in outpatients with PTSD secondary to a wide range of traumatic events. A relaxation therapy condition was employed as the comparison group. The three active treatment groups demonstrated significant reduction in symptoms compared to the relaxation sample. These intervention groups were not markedly different from on another on the main treatment outcome measures. Several investigations have advanced the field of PTSD treatment, even though the methodology utilized in the outcome study limited the conclusions that could be drawn. Frank and Stewart (1983) reported the effects of systematic desensitization on women who had been raped and who developed significant psychological symptomatology. Compared to an untreated comparison group, those women treated with graduated exposure improved most on a range of anxiety and depression symptom measures. Imaginal and in-vivo exposure was compared in a randomized study of survivors of varying traumatic events (Richards, Lovell, and Marks,1994). At the 12-month follow-up, patients reported consistent reductions in PTSD symptoms and improved social adjustment. This data further substantiates the efficiency of exposure treatment for some individuals, and also suggest that improvements in symptoms are also reflected in critical domains of life functioning. In conclusion, the existing data advocates the use of exposure therapy in the treatment of PTSD. In a previous review of this literature, Solomon, Gerrity, and Muff, (1992), (Sited in Shapiro, 1995) derived the same conclusion from data available at that time. Similar conclusions were drawn by Otto, Penava, Pollack, and Smoller (1996) in a more recent review of the literature. In what may prove to be an important lesson for the treatment of individuals exposed to traumatic events, Foa, Hearst-Ikeda, and Perry (1995) investigated the effectiveness of a short-term intervention to prevent the development of chronic PTSD in females who had been recently raped. The program was based upon that which worked well in earlier trials with chronic PTSD. Exposure therapy figured prominently in the package of treatment and also included elements of education, breathing retraining, and cognitive restructuring. When individuals receiving the package were compared to a control group, this study found that at 2 months post-treatment only ten percent of the treatment sample met the diagnosis for PTSD, while seventy percent of the untreated comparison group did. As information continues to grow on exposure therapy, there is a clear requirement for research to investigate combinations of psychological treatment, to utilize screening measures that consider occupational and social performance, and to access the outcome of interventions on co-morbid psychological difficulties. Unmistakably, the existing empirical research reveals the importance of extending the application of exposure approaches to PTSD patients. However future studies assessing the generalization of exposure therapy from laboratory trials to clinical settings would be particularly useful. When exposure therapy has been compared to other forms of cognitive therapy, such as cognitive restructuring (see below), it has proved to be more successful in reducing PTSD. Tarrier et al., (1999) assigned 72 people with chronic PTSD to either a Cognitive Therapy (CT) group or an imaginal exposure (IE) therapy group, and concluded that there was no noteworthy differentiation between the two treatment conditions initially or at 12 months post treatment. Participants recruited were obtained from a sample of referrals to primary and secondary mental health services and voluntary services, indicating that they were representative of a genuine clinical sample. However, 50% of the sample remained above clinical significance for PTSD symptoms after treatment was completed, although this dropped to 25% at six-month follow-up. This lack of improvement may have been influenced by participants failure to attend sessions regularly. Furthermore, those who did not show improvement rated the trea tment as less convincing and were rated as not as motivated by the clinician. Therefore, it is argued that motivation for therapy and regular attendance plays an important role in outcome of therapy regardless of treatment model. A further limitation of this study was that no control group was used and non-specific treatment factors and spontaneous remission could also account for the improvements in reported symptoms. Cognitive Restructuring Cognitive restructuring is derived from the theory that discovering and altering catastrophic and inaccurate interpretation of the trauma leads to a decrease in symptoms. Some of the latest models have emphasised the significance of altering thinking distortions in the rehabilitation of individuals who have experienced trauma (Ehlers Clarke, 2000). Ehlers, Clark, Hackmann, McManus, and Fennell (2005) utilized cognitive therapy based on the cognitive model of PTSD (see figure 1. Ehlers Clarke, 2000). From this model, the aim of therapy is to alter overly negative interpretations, amend the disturbance in autobiographical recollection and to eliminate the unhelpful behavioural and cognitive strategies (see figure 2, Ehlers et al., 2005). In a randomised controlled trial of twenty-eight participants diagnosed with PTSD. Fourteen participants were assigned at random to cognitive therapy treatment or a 13-week waiting-list condition. Those receiving cognitive therapy had 12 weekly treatment sessions, based on the Ehlers and Clarke (2000) model of trauma focused CBT. Participants completed self-report screenings of anxiety, mood and PTSD symptoms, and the Sheehan Disability Scale (APA, 2000). Measures were administered before and after treatment and at 6-months follow up. Findings revealed that cognitive therapy for PTSD was signifi cantly better than a three month waiting-list group on symptoms of PTSD, disability and symptoms of anxiety and affect. This study had no dropouts, which is a significant improvement on other studies, which yielded high dropout rates, (e.g. Tarrier et al., 1999). Participants displayed a positive change in cognitive appraisals. The Ehlers and Clarke (2000) model suggest that two additional paths of change; alteration in the autobiographical recollection of the trauma, and the discontinuation of maintenance behaviours and cognitive strategies are integral in reducing symptoms of PTSD. While the treatment incorporated these other aspects, these have not been measured systematically, so it is difficult to conclude whether clients experienced a change in these two areas. Further analysis indicated that demographic, trauma and diagnostic variable did not predict intervention results, signifying that the approach is pertinent to a broad scope of individual who have experienced trauma. Conversely, the extent of discrepancy of trauma and small sample numbers suggests that this finding would not be present in a larger sample. Co-morbid depression and previous trauma history, which was present in over half the sample, did not negatively affect outcome. Combinations of therapy Resick and Schnicke (1992) have proffered a multidimensional behavioural treatment for females who have PTSD associated with sexual assault. This treatment, known as cognitive processing therapy (CPT), includes components of exposure therapy, AMT, and cognitive restructuring. The cognitive therapy element of CPT involves tackling central thinking distortions found among females who have been assaulted. These authors have developed interventions which particularly deal with concerns of trust, self-confidence, safety and intimacy in the lives of trauma victims. In a preliminary evaluation of CPT, the authors compared outcomes at pre-treatment, post-treatment, 3 months follow-up, and 6 months follow-up for an intervention group and a non-treatment group (no random assignment was used). On clinician ratings and psychometric inventories of PTSD, the individuals receiving CPT improved significantly. Impressively at the post-treatment assessment, none of the treated patients met criteria fo r PTSD. In another study, Resick, Nishith, and Astin (2000) evaluated CPT and exposure therapy in the management of sexual assault-related PTSD. Both approaches proved successful in general and were more successful than a non-treatment control group. CPT did also seem to reduce comorbid symptoms of depression, as well as those of PTSD. Combination therapy that incorporates a number of cognitive-behavioural techniques have the advantage of addressing various difficulties that individuals with PTSD may experience, in addition to integrating methods that have a considerable scientific evidence base in the clinical literature. An intervention incorporating exposure therapy, AMT, and cognitive restructuring as the main elements for treating PTSD was proposed by Keane, Fisher, Krinsley, and Niles (1994). This treatment utilizes six stages as a means of treating severe and chronic PTSD, it incorporates the following: (1) behavioural stabilization; (2) trauma psycho-education; (3) AMT; (4) trauma focus work; (5) relapse prevention skills; and (6) aftercare procedures. Although this approach has clinical appeal, it wasnt until psychologists Fecteau and Nicki (1999) examined such a package in a randomized clinical trial for PTSD resulting from automobile accidents that the impact of a combination package such as that proposed by Keane et al. (1994) was assessed. Their intervention consisted of psycho-education, relaxation, exposure, cognitive restructuring, and guided behavioural exercises. Patients were randomly assigned to the treatment group or non-treatment comparison group and received some 8-10 sessions of individualized treatment. The outcome of the treatment was effective as assessed by clinical ratings, self-report questionnaires, and lab-based psycho-physiological evaluation methods. Described by the authors as clinically and statistically significant, these treatment outcomes were sustained at the 6-month post treatment evaluation. Bryant, Moulds, Guthrie, Dang, and Nixon (2003) studied the effects of IE alone or IE with CR in the treatment of PTSD. They hypothesised a CR and IE treatment combination would lead to significantly better decrease in PTSD symptoms than exposure on its own, which would be more beneficial than a supportive counselling condition. Fifty-eight civilian trauma victims, diagnosed with PTSD as measured by the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale, version II, CAPS-2, (Blake et al., 1995) were randomly allocated to one of the 3 conditions. Each participant received eight weekly 90-minute sessions of either IE, CR and IE or supportive counselling. Participants completed assessments at pre and post intervention and six months following. These measured PTSD symptoms and psychopathology. Forty-five participants completed treatment and analysis indicated that dropouts had higher scores for depression, avoidance and higher catastrophic cognitions than those who completed. Results indicated that parti cipants receiving both IE and IE/CR had a siginifcantly better decrease in PTSD symptoms and anxiety than supportive counselling (SC). The main revelation of this investigation was that treatment comprising of IE and CR leads to significantly better reductions in CAPS-II scores compared to treatment involving IE alone. Furthermore, those receiving IE/CR, but not IE on its own, gave accounts of less avoidance, depression and catastrophic thoughts than individuals in receipt SC. The findings from this research indicated that the combination of IE and CR are successful in decreasing symptoms of PTSD. It can be argued that the reasons why IE/CR may have been more effective than augmented treatments in the past (e.g. Foa et al., 1999) was that the research prudently controlled for the duration of time spent on every section of treatment. Furthermore, participants were instructed on CR before commencing IE so they understood the rationale behind the techniques prior to addressing the strong emotional components of IE. This may have increased their understanding and belief that it was a credible treatment approach. The outcome that CR improved the benefits of IE treatment could have been a result of a number of likely mechanisms. IE and CR may consist of similar aspects, such as processing of emotional memories, amalgamation of corrective information and acomplishment of self-mastery (Marks, 2000). Combining the two approaches may give the patient more chances to achieve treatment gains. CR may have lead to greater decrease in symptoms as it explicitly attended to identifying and changing unhelpful thoughts that may add to the maintenance of PTSD and related difficulties (Ehlers Clarke, 2000). Paunovic and Ost (2001), compared treatment outcome data for CBT and exposure therapy for sixteen refugees with PTSD. The authors excluded those who became too distressed in the initial interview, expressed a lack of confidence in the therapist or were misusing alcohol or drugs. Results indicated there was no significant difference between participants completing CBT or exposure therapy, being similar to Tarrier et als (1999) findings. Criticisms of Paunovic and Ost (2001)s study are that participants did not use a self-report trauma measure, so although results are positive, there is no clear analysis of whether participants felt their trauma symptoms decreased as a result of the treatment. Further, it is not possible to generalise these findings to traumatised refugees in general, as this work is unique. Working with the use of an interpreter raises several ethical and sensitive issues, as the participant must be able to develop a therapeutic alliance with the therapist and trust the interpreter (Tribe, 2007). It could be argued that participants may have been experiencing a greater degree of trauma, not least because they had not yet learned the native language. Discussion The most successful CBT treatments seem to be those that involve repeated exposure to the traumatic memory (Foa et al., 1991; Foa et al., 1999; Foa Rothbaum, 1992) on cognitive restructuring of the interpretation of the traumatic event, (Ehlers Clarke, 2000) or a combination of these approaches, (Resick Schnicke, 1992). Importantly, studies have concluded that trauma focused CBT is more successful than supportive counselling (Blanchard et al., 2003; Bryant et al., 2003). Whilst the studies reviewed have helpfully added to our understanding of PTSD there are numerous limitations of the applications of the findings. One in particular is an over-reliance on non-clinical samples of participants such that many claims of clinically effective therapy have been made from research with participants who were not within mental health systems, and despite having PTSD symptoms had not actively sought treatment. In addition, dropout rates in studies are high, particularly for those studies that did not use a clinical sample. This might have skewed the evidence particularly with approaches that used exposure-based therapy. Furthermore, most of the studies reviewed screened out those individuals experiencing the greatest amount of distress, avoidance and co-morbidity. Therefore results are biased towards those clients who were able to tolerate treatment and whose symptoms were not as chronic. Indeed, inclusion and exclusion criteria appear to have a great impact on outcome of treatment. For example, studies with a strict inclusion criteria (e.g. no co-morbidity, substance misuse, self harm) appear to have significant improvements, whilst other studies i.e. Kubany et al., (2003), allowed participants to continue with other therapy while embarking on their therapy. This makes it methodologically difficult to ascertain exactly what has been effective in reducing PTSD symptoms. As inclusion and exclusion criteria are idiosyncratic across studies, it makes it difficult to draw general conclusions regarding treatment effectiveness with a clinical population across studies. Studies often chose to focus therapy on identified groups, e.g. police officers. However, clients who experience PTSD do not form a homogeneous group and further, the symptoms experienced may be diverse even within a sample of individuals who have experienced the same trauma. Treatment studies often do not control for other factors that may be important contributing factors in outcome such as the role of education, quality of the therapeutic relationship, therapeutic alliance and other nonspecific factors. The literature was generally from American, British or European sources although clearly trauma is intercultural. This raises issues about how different cultures interpret PTSD, an essentially Western concept, and also whether the treatments advocated would be effective cross-culturally. Previous research has strongly indicated that PTSD is not an appropriate term to use in non-western situations (Summerfield, 1997), hence therapeutic approaches need to account for this. It is not clear in the majority of studies when the participant experienced the trauma, and at what point therapy started. Frequently these characteristics are omitted from studies, therefore making it difficult to compare effectiveness of studies. It is essential to think about the types of individuals that have been represented in the research and to look at whether it is representative of those who seek treatment. Finally, very little has been reported on the impact of other difficulties an individual is experiencing as PTSD can have a broad ranging effect on an individuals quality of life and functioning and most often clients have more complex presentations. Only very few studies reviewed controlled for this variable (see Ehlers et al., 2005). This is an inherent difficulty when completing resea rch with a trauma population as within research it is important to obtain a sample that have a similar degree of difficulties in order to assess treatment efficacy. Several papers have evaluated different types of therapy according to particular groups. However, it appears that one size does not fit all in relation to PTSID. In particular the issues of culture and gender are of importance (see Liebling Ojiambo-Ochieng, 2000; Sheppard, 2000). Individual formulations of presenting problems and contexts, which informs therapy that is adapted to suit individual clients needs, may in fact be more helpful. It remains important to consider individual differences and client choice when offering trauma therapy. Trauma therapy outcome studies are limited by the fact that sufferers usually have other mental health problems alongside PTSD such as depression or social anxiety. Evaluation of effective treatment of trauma survivors therefore might need to go beyond medical diagnostic categories as most of the research excludes clients with co-morbid problems. A multifaceted intervention, based on clients own views, which addressed these other difficulties, could assist in decreasing relapse and greaten the long-lasting effectiveness of any PTSD intervention. As outlined in the methodological limitations section, much of the research reviewed has not used a genuine clinical sample, there are high dropout rates, widely variable inclusion and exclusion criteria, and the heterogeneity of PTSD has perhaps not yet been accounted for. It is therefore difficult to ascertain what is specifically helpful or effective within the treatment components. This seems to be the next area for consideration in resea rch. Further research into the optimal length of treatment and timing of therapy, the effect of co-morbidity and the differing effects of individual and group therapy approaches for traumatised clients are required. Further controlled research is needed to ascertain if the types of therapies reviewed can provide long term lasting effects in reducing PTSD symptomatology. At present the scientific evidence is mainly restricted to the evaluation of short term, focused treatment approaches, and it would be helpful to have controlled studies on longer-term interventions for more complex cases of trauma. Further research would benefit from considering the clients views and experiences of therapy, this perspective was lacking in the literature reviewed. Service user and carer perspectives are beyond the scope of this review, however they have been highlighted as an important consideration within the NICE guidelines and therefore require further consideration in future research. Conclusion There appear to be at least three approaches with exceptional empirical evidence for treating PTSD; exposure therapy, cognitive therapy or a combination of these methods. These three interventions have empirical validation in well-controlled clinical trials, demonstrate strong treatment effect sizes, and seem to work well across varied populations of trauma sufferers. However future research to examine the efficacy of these methods in clinical environments is necessary. There is much to be learned about the treatment of PTSD. It is certain there will be no simple answers for treating people who have experienced the most horrific events life offers. Undoubtedly, combinations of treatments as proposed by Keane et al. (1994) and Resick and Schnicke (1992) may prove to be the most powerful interventions. PTSD research in this area is only in the earliest stages of its development. Finally, an assumption about the uniformity of traumatic events has been made in the literature in general. Although it is reasonable to speculate that fundamental similarities exist among patients who have experienced diverse traumatic events and then develop PTSD, whether these patients will respond to clinical interventions in the same way is an empirical question that has yet to be addressed. Studies posing a question such as this would be a welcome addition to the clinical literature: Will people with PTSD resulting from combat, torture, genocide, and natural disasters all improve as well as those treated successfully following rape, motor vehicle accidents, and assaults? This is a crucial issue that requires additional scientific study in order to provide clinicians with the requisite evidence supporting the use of available techniques. Research on the prevalence of exposure to traumatic events and the prevalence of PTSD has mainly been carried out in the United States. Yet there are fundamental errors in assuming that these prevalence rates apply even to other Western, developed countries. Studies that examine the prevalence of PTSD and other disorders internationally are clearly warranted. Implicit in this recommendation is the need to examine the extent to which current assessment instrumentation is culturally sensitive to the ways in which traumatic reactions are expressed internationally. Much work on this topic will be required before definitive conclusions regarding prevalence rates of PTSD internationally can be drawn. Studies of the effectiveness of the psychological treatments across cultures and ethnic groups are also needed. What may be effective for Western populations may be inadequate or possibly even unacceptable treatment for people who reside in other areas of the world and who have different world views, beliefs, and perspectives. This issue will need to be more closely examined before we can draw definitive conclusions. It is suggested that despite the type of treatment provided to individuals with trauma there is ultimately a necessity for a flexible, integrative approach to treatment in order to address the multifaceted and changing requirements of individual trauma survivors. A range of outcomes has been revealed with the types of treatments outlined in this review, it is uncertain which individuals will respond greatest to various treatment approaches. Nevertheless, what is important in determining the effectiveness of any psychological treatment of PTSD is that it is reliant upon forming and upholding a therapeutic alliance that is strong enough for the client to experience as safe and trusting for positive emotional modifications to take place.

Difference Between Greek and Roman Warfare :: essays research papers

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GREEK AND ROMAN WAREFARE   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main difference between Greek and Roman warfare was the formations that they fought in. The Grecian armies all used the phalanx as a fighting formation while the Romans used the maniple. The phalanx was one mass formation that consisted of infantry eight deep. The maniple formation was actually a group of formations in a checkerboard pattern. Each maniple consisted of about 120 men and when employed in Italy, the Romans used thirty maniples. The maniple proved to be a better formation, because the phalanx left no room for maneuvering after engagement.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Greeks basic soldier was a foot soldier that was trained for close combat. The basic combat soldier in Rome was a horse rider and an expert bowman. This was also due in part to the increase in technology as well. The Grecian hoplite would also carry a spear that compared to the Roman pilum as a predecessor. The pilum was much longer and could be thrown a lot further.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another difference in warfare was the way that the different regions treated their opponents after a victory. The Greeks would enslave and control a defeated people while the Romans would not treat a defeated nation as slaves, but would â€Å"invite† them to ally and basically become part of Rome. This was the case of the Sicilians after they were defeated during the first Punic War.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Roman Empire split into two different empires, the eastern or Byzantium and the western. The two empires mirrored each other politically, but not religiously. The Greeks never allowed themselves to split territory into two different powers, although some Greek city-states had dual kings, but never on a national level.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The political system of both Roman empires was based on virtue and the republic was founded with the Senate as the center. The magistrates were elected annually and also had control of the armies. The key to Roman superiority was the patriotism and training and drills.

Emily Dickinson :: essays research papers

Emily Dickinson was born on December 10, 1830 in Amherst, Massachusetts. She died in the same place on May 15, 1886. Today people know her as a fascinating, talented writer. Most of the pieces Emily wrote were poems. Emily was a very isolated individual. She rarely ever got out or had any contact with anybody outside of her home. Along with writing her poems she wrote letters to the people that she did have contact with. In the letters that she would write there would be poems somewhere within them. Emily wrote a total of 1,775 poems in her lifetime. Even though she wrote these poems she never let it be known that she had the capability to write poems with such elegance. All of the poems that she would write she kept hidden somewhere in her room. She would hide the poems in places like her window, under her bed, in corners of the room, and lots of other places. After Emily’s death the truth would be told about her secret talent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Emily’s sister, Lavinia Dickinson found around 900 of the poems Emily had hidden in her room. Her sister decided that the poems were good enough to be published. She went to a friend of the family where she would get help in editing and publishing the poems. Lavinia’s friend, Mabel Loomis Todd and a friend of hers, Thomas Wentworth Higginson began to put a lot of Said 2 effort of getting the poems published. In the year 1890 they accomplished in getting 115 of Emily’s poems published. After their first success of publishing the poems they began to get more involved with Emily’s poems. Along with publishing the poems Mabel and Thomas began practicing the revision of the poems. When Emily wrote the poems some of the English written was incorrect and some of the poems were incomplete. They corrected the English and finished the incomplete poems to the best of their ability. After a while they managed to publish another 166 poems.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As Johnson describes Emily Dickinson and compares her to other poets like Edgar Allen Poe and Whitman he states: Dickinson, however, was the poet of exclusion, of the shut door. She accepted the limitations of rhyme and meter, and worked endless variations on one basic pattern, exploring the nuances that the framework would allow. No democrat, she constructed for herself a set of aristocratic images; she was queen and empress.

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Latin American countries should provide free birth control devices to all its citizens. Giving free birth control devices will cause a cascade effect that will help these countries that are in poverty. Since many of these Latin American countries are in poverty such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala it will make these countries have less deaths, crime and drug trafficking. In many of these countries there are huge amounts of drug trafficking and gang violence happening in these same countries that have a huge poverty and high amount of children born. Since many of these children are born with poverty they struggle to eat. Providing birth control devices for the Latin American countries would allow a lesser birth rate in these countries allowing these family to afford a living rather than having to survive whether it be legal or not. Since these countries are not providing birth control devices there is a high birth rate that far exceeds the income that one can provide. However there are many different ways that are birth control such as pills, condoms, etc.; since none of these devi...

The Future of Food

THE FUTURE OF FOOD You might think you know everything about the foods that you eat or place on the plates for your family, but you have no idea. The Future of Food is a documentary that reveals appalling or should I say shocking information regarding our crops that are grown in the U. S. today and how big corporations are taking over and altering the foods that we eat through science, all because of corporate greed.What’s even more terrifying is that majority of consumers have no clue that genetically modified foods are everywhere including the shelves at their local grocery stores. These big biotech agricultural companies are genetically modifying our foods with dangerous pesticides, viruses and foreign DNA, not knowing or really caring about what effects this will have towards the consumers and our ecosystems in the future. Well if you thought that was bad news let me just say that’s only the tip of the iceberg and also to let you guys know that what’s worse i s there is no laws in the U.S. that requires these companies to label the GMO foods. What these large companies do is go and patent every seed they can claim, not just in the U. S. but the entire world, basically stealing the creations of nature and claiming them to be their own, a process known as â€Å"biopiracy. † We all thought we were safe because that’s what the USDA, EPA and FDA are here for, to protect us and make sure that our foods that we ingest are safe, harmless and not contaminated.I’m sorry to say that the same people who run the USDA, EPA, and FDA are the same most powerful leaders of these big agricultural companies. This documentary was such an eye-opener to what is going on with our food supply industry. After watching this film I was so sickened on what our country has become. I mean to be apart of these big biotech agricultural companies, you must be really demonic, no heart and especially no conscience at all. How do these people at the top just keep doing what they’re doing treating the masses like lab rats?I love science and how its contributed so much to our world, but people who take advantage of it such as these large corporations have really taken it to the next level. These biotech agricultural companies are claiming to come to a rescue with a new breed of genetically modified crops that can produce more food for the world, but news flash last I heard was that there are still millions of people out there starving with no food availability.In the documentary they stated that the, â€Å"FDA continues to insist that the U. S. public has no right to know which foods are genetically modified because it might confuse them. † Wow, do I feel insulted as a fellow American. I mean is that what our society has become? Practically everyone in the world including Europeans and Canadians have actually banned any type of genetically modified exports from the U. S. but we are still on this GMO food ban wagon or w e’re just really naive people who have no clue what is going on with our world. As of today, I still can’t believe our own people at the top of our society would exploit their own fellow Americans, but thanks to this documentary for making me aware and educating me as a consumer about these GMO foods. I would definitely recommend this documentary to everyone and maybe the more people that become aware the faster we can ban these genetically modified crops in our food supply.

Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Language Systems

Anthropological Approaches* to *The* Study of Language S*ystems Language: The arbitrary vocal symbols human beings use to encode and communicate about their experience of the world and of one another. Linguistics: the scientific study of language Linguistic anthropologists study how language is formed and how it works, the history and development of language and the relationships between language and other aspects of culture Throughout time a change in language through modern technology All human beings have language it varies in terms of its nature and all language is equally sophisticated and complex All human beings have the capacity to learn language Children who are isolate and not socialized till the age of 6 cannot learn language (feral children) Communicative competence Linguistic Anthropology Focuses on the mechanics of language, including: Phonology (phonetics): the general study of the sounds used in speech by means of an internationally recognized system of symbols to represent the various phonetic sounds of speech. Syntax: the study of the manner in which minimum units of meaning (morphemes) are put together into phrases or sentences. Or, what English speakers call grammar. Historical Linguistics Studies the relationships of languages to one another and reconstructs how languages change over time. Includes an analysis of how the phonology of language changes over time (dialects, pidgins, creoles, and new languages). Includes an examinations of potential universals in linguistic principles of classification (are there universal classifications for colours? ) 12 different languages before European contact, why is that important? Because that means that there were people living in the North America for a very long time. It was so diverse! Specialized field that studies the relationship between language and culture. SapirWhorf Hypothesis: all human experience is to some extent, mediated through culture and language. Objects or forces n the physical environment become labelled in language only if they have cultural significance, and language systems themselves (vocabulary and syntax_ influence speakers perceptions of the world. How do Anthropologists study language? {text:list-item} {text:list-item} Proxemics: the study of the use of space in communication. Ex. Talking too close for comfort. Handshaking etiquette. Discourse Analysis:the analysis of a stretch of speech or other form of communication l onger than a sentence and united by a common theme. Often concerned with relations of power and inequality in language use and knowledge production. Ex. Global warming, refusing to use the word in communications. The way the language gets used in power relationships is important. Unique Design Features of Human Language *Openn*ess: the creative capacity of human language Displacement: the ability to talk about absent, abstract or nonexistent objects of subjects Arbitrariness: no universal link between particular linguistic sounds (sings) and particular linguistic meanings (signified). Duality of Patterning: arrangement of sounds(phonemes) is not random, but systematically patterned to create meaning bearing unites (morphemes). Prevarication: the ability for linguistic messages to be false or to violate convention. Lies, animals are not able to lie. Forms of Communicative Competence Linguistic Competence: human ability to learn correct assemblages of phonemes, morphemes and syntax (or grammar) Communicative Competence: human beings ability to learn culturally appropriate speech patterns. Much of communicative competence involves learning inter-textual codes. The concept of inter-textuality essentially states that meaning depends on our knowledge of linguistic and symbolic codes.